Psychedelics, referred to by author Terence McKenna as “doorways into the Gaian mind,” are a class of substances that produce profound changes in our perception, mood, and thought processes. Psychedelics often induce altered states of consciousness or spiritual experiences.
Psychedelic substances have been used for centuries in religious and healing contexts, but their modern history, especially their discovery and classification, is fascinating.
Here is the list of psychedelics, their definitions, and historical facts surrounding their discovery:
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
LSD is a powerful synthetic hallucinogen known for its ability to induce profound alterations in perception, thought, and consciousness. It’s typically taken in small doses (micrograms).
Discovery Of LSD
LSD was first synthesized in 1938 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann while working at Sandoz Laboratories. Hofmann was studying ergot fungus derivatives in the hope of creating a respiratory and circulatory stimulant. However, the psychedelic effects of LSD were not discovered until 1943 when Hofmann accidentally absorbed a small amount through his skin and experienced the first LSD “trip.”
Historical Facts Of LSD
April 19, 1943, known as Bicycle Day, marks the first intentional ingestion of LSD by Hofmann, who rode his bicycle home during the trip.
LSD became central to the counterculture movements of the 1960s, particularly after Harvard psychologist Timothy Leary began advocating for its use.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding LSD
Clinical Research Resurgence Of LSD
In recent years, there has been a resurgence in clinical research on LSD for its potential to treat mental health disorders, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD. In 2022, a study conducted in Switzerland demonstrated that LSD-assisted psychotherapy showed promise in reducing symptoms of anxiety in patients with life-threatening illnesses.
Legalization Efforts and Decriminalization Of LSD Push
Oregon’s Measure 109: In November 2020, Oregon voters approved Measure 109, which allowed the regulated therapeutic use of psilocybin. Although LSD wasn’t included, this sparked broader conversations around psychedelic legalization and decriminalization across the US, including debates about expanding policies to other substances like LSD.
Microdosing Of LSD Trend
LSD has gained significant attention due to the rising trend of microdosing in Silicon Valley and other creative industries. Microdosing involves taking sub-perceptual doses of LSD to improve focus, creativity, and mental well-being. This trend has been widely reported in tech and lifestyle media since the mid-2010s, sparking debates about its safety and potential benefits.
Global Status Of LSD (Updated 2024)*
Illegal in most countries due to its classification as a Schedule I substance under the 1971 UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances. This classification means it’s considered to have no accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse.
Countries where LSD is illegal:
USA: Schedule I under the Controlled Substances Act (CSA).
UK: Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.
Canada: Schedule III substance.
Australia: Schedule 9 prohibited substance.
Exceptions:
Switzerland: LSD can be used legally in some clinical trials and research under strict regulations.
Brazil: While production and sale are illegal, personal use is decriminalized.
Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
Psilocybin is the active compound found in certain species of mushrooms that induces hallucinogenic effects, including altered perception of time and space, visual distortions, and spiritual experiences.
Discovery Of Psilocybin
While indigenous cultures in Mesoamerica had been using psilocybin-containing mushrooms for centuries in religious rituals, the Western world was introduced to these mushrooms in 1957 by ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson. He published an article in Life Magazine about his experiences with the Mazatec Indians of Mexico.
Historical Facts Of Psilocybin
In 1958, Albert Hofmann (who also discovered LSD) isolated psilocybin and psilocin from these mushrooms, making it available for scientific research.
These mushrooms were used in Aztec and Mayan spiritual rituals and were referred to as “teonanácatl” (the flesh of the gods).
News Stories and Developments Surrounding Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
Legalization for Therapeutic Use Of Psilocybin
Oregon’s Psilocybin Therapy Program: Following the approval of Measure 109 in 2020, Oregon became the first state in the US to legalize the regulated medical use of psilocybin. The Psilocybin Services Act took effect in January 2023, allowing licensed facilities to offer psilocybin-assisted therapy under supervision.
FDA Designation as a Breakthrough Therapy Using Psilocybin
In 2018 and 2019, the FDA granted breakthrough therapy status to psilocybin for the treatment of depression. This designation accelerates the development and review of drugs that demonstrate significant improvement over existing therapies. Ongoing trials suggest that psilocybin could be a game-changer in mental health treatment, particularly for treatment-resistant depression.
Decriminalization Of Psilocybin Movements
Numerous cities and states in the US, such as Denver (Colorado), Oakland (California), and Washington, D.C., have passed laws to decriminalize psilocybin and other entheogenic plants. The global decriminalization movement continues to grow, with other countries considering similar measures, inspired by the mental health potential of psilocybin.
Global Status Of Psilocybin – 2024*
The legal status of psychedelics varies widely across the world, with some countries imposing strict bans, while others allow their use in specific contexts like medical or religious practices.
Illegal in many countries
Psilocybin is classified under Schedule I of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances. However, the legal status of psilocybin-containing mushrooms varies based on how the laws interpret the plants.
Countries where Psilocybin is illegal
USA: Psilocybin is a Schedule I substance.
UK: Classified as a Class A drug.
Canada: Schedule III drug, although therapeutic use is allowed in some cases via exemptions.
Australia: Psilocybin is illegal but has been approved for medical use for treatment-resistant depression from July 2023.
Exceptions
Brazil and Jamaica: Psilocybin mushrooms are not explicitly illegal, and there are retreat centers offering psilocybin experiences.
Netherlands: While psilocybin mushrooms are banned, “magic truffles” (underground parts of the mushroom) are legal.
Portugal: Psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized for personal use.
Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus)
Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid found in the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii) and the San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi). It induces visual hallucinations, altered states of consciousness, and heightened awareness of sensory experiences.
Discovery Of Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus)
Mescaline was first isolated and identified in 1897 by German chemist Arthur Heffter from the peyote cactus.
Historical Facts Of Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus)
Peyote has been used by indigenous peoples of North and Central America, particularly the Huichol and Navajo, for thousands of years in religious ceremonies.
Aldous Huxley’s famous 1954 book The Doors of Perception describes his experiences with mescaline and helped bring attention to the potential of psychedelics.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus)
Sacred Use and Efforts For The Conservation of Mescaline/Peyote
There has been growing concern over the sustainability of peyote, particularly in the Southwestern US and Mexico, where the plant is over-harvested. Indigenous groups like the Native American Church (NAC) have called for conservation measures to protect peyote from depletion while still allowing for its use in religious ceremonies.
Mescaline’s Therapeutic Potential of Mescaline/Peyote
New research is emerging about the therapeutic potential of mescaline. In 2021, studies began examining its potential for treating mental health conditions, such as addiction and PTSD. Mescaline is also gaining attention as an alternative to other psychedelics for people seeking spiritual experiences without the legal and logistical challenges associated with substances like LSD or psilocybin.
Advocacy Against Commercialization of Peyote
Indigenous groups and advocates have voiced concerns about the potential commercialization of peyote, which could harm sacred traditions and further threaten the plant’s population. Many argue that San Pedro cactus should be promoted for therapeutic use, as it is more abundant and lacks the cultural and religious significance that peyote holds for Native Americans.
Global Status Of Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus) – 2024*
Mescaline is illegal in most countries but has exceptions due to its religious use by indigenous groups.
Countries where Mescaline is illegal
USA: Mescaline is a Schedule I substance, but peyote is legal for use by members of the Native American Church for religious purposes.
UK: Mescaline is a Class A drug, but San Pedro cacti are legal to possess as ornamental plants (though extraction is illegal).
Canada: Schedule III drug, but San Pedro and peyote can be legally grown for ornamental purposes.
Exceptions:
Mexico: Peyote is protected and can be used legally by the Huichol people for religious purposes.
Peru and Bolivia: The San Pedro cactus is legal and used traditionally in shamanic rituals.
DMT (Dimethyltryptamine)
DMT is a powerful psychedelic compound found in several plants and animals. It is often smoked, vaporized, or consumed in brewed forms like ayahuasca, producing intense, short-lived hallucinations and profound spiritual experiences.
Discovery Of DMT
DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by Canadian chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske, but its psychoactive properties were not discovered until 1956 when Hungarian chemist and psychiatrist Stephen Szára tested it on himself.
Historical Facts of DMT
DMT is a key ingredient in ayahuasca, a brew used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in shamanic rituals for thousands of years.
The plant Psychotria viridis, containing DMT, is combined with the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains MAO inhibitors, to make ayahuasca, prolonging the effects of DMT.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding DMT (Dimethyltryptamine)
Rise of Ayahuasca Tourism
Ayahuasca tourism has been booming in countries like Peru, Brazil, and Costa Rica, attracting people from around the world seeking spiritual or therapeutic experiences. This has sparked debate about the cultural appropriation of indigenous practices, with some concerns raised about unregulated retreats, exploitation, and the safety of these ceremonies.
Scientific Research into DMT’s Therapeutic Effects Of DMT
In 2021, the first UK-based clinical trial of DMT-assisted therapy for mental health conditions, including depression and anxiety, was launched by the company Small Pharma. This trial is part of a broader trend in the psychedelic research field, with studies indicating that DMT could potentially induce rapid and profound therapeutic effects in just one session.
Decriminalization of DMT-containing Plants
In the US, the decriminalization of DMT and other entheogens has gained momentum. Cities like Oakland and Santa Cruz have decriminalized plants containing DMT, such as ayahuasca and mimosa hostilis, aligning with the broader decriminalization trend of entheogens. Advocates argue that natural DMT-containing plants should not be classified as illicit substances.
Global Status Of DMT (Dimethyltryptamine) – 2024*
DMT is illegal in most countries, listed as a Schedule I substance under the UN Convention. However, it is often used in ayahuasca ceremonies, which are legal in some countries due to religious protections.
Countries where DMT is illegal:
USA: Schedule I substance.
UK: Class A drug.
Australia: Schedule 9 prohibited substance.
Canada: Schedule III, but ayahuasca use may be allowed through religious exemptions.
Exceptions:
Brazil: Ayahuasca is legal and used in religious ceremonies by groups like the Santo Daime and União do Vegetal.
Peru: Ayahuasca is considered part of cultural heritage and legal for traditional use.
Ayahuasca
Ayahuasca is a traditional South American brew, also called wine of the spirits (Vino de los Espíritus or Vinho dos Espiritos), made from the combination of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the Psychotria viridis plant, containing DMT. It produces intense visual and auditory hallucinations, often with deep introspective and spiritual insights.
Discovery Of Ayahuasca
The use of Ayahuasca dates back thousands of years among indigenous groups in the Amazon, the Western discovery came in the early 20th century. Missionaries, such as Manuel Villavicencio in the 1850s, and explorers documented its use, but detailed scientific exploration began later.
Historical Facts Of Ayahuasca
In the 1950s and 1960s, Western researchers like Richard Evans Schultes began investigating ayahuasca, helping to document its cultural and religious significance.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding Ayahuasca
Legal Battles Over Religious Use Of Ayahuasca
Ayahuasca has been at the center of legal battles in the US and Europe concerning its religious use. For example, in the US, the União do Vegetal (UDV) and the Santo Daime Church won court cases allowing them to use ayahuasca in religious ceremonies under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. However, ongoing legal issues exist, especially around imports and safety concerns.
Ayahuasca’s Rising Popularity for Addiction Treatment
There is growing interest in using ayahuasca to treat substance addiction, particularly alcohol and opioid dependence. In 2021, studies in Canada and Brazil found that participants in ayahuasca-assisted therapy programs reported significant reductions in cravings and relapses. This has sparked global interest in its potential as an alternative addiction treatment.
Deaths and Safety Concerns in Ayahuasca Ceremonies
Despite its growing popularity, there have been safety concerns surrounding ayahuasca ceremonies, with some cases of deaths reported due to improper use, interactions with medications, or preexisting medical conditions. These incidents have raised calls for better regulation and oversight of ayahuasca retreats and ceremonies, particularly those marketed to Western tourists.
Global Status Of Ayahuasca – 2024*
The legality of ayahuasca varies widely, often depending on its cultural or religious significance.
Countries where Ayahuasca is legal or partially legal:
Brazil and Peru: Legal and used in religious and traditional ceremonies.
Portugal: Decriminalized for personal use.
USA: Ayahuasca use is legal for religious purposes under specific court rulings for groups like the Santo Daime and União do Vegetal.
Canada: Religious exemptions can be granted for the use of ayahuasca.
Countries where Ayahuasca is illegal:
UK: Ayahuasca is illegal due to its DMT content.
France: Both DMT and ayahuasca are banned substances.
MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
MDMA, often referred to as “ecstasy” or “molly,” is a synthetic drug that induces euphoria, emotional closeness, and heightened sensory perception. It has both stimulant and mild psychedelic effects.
Discovery Of MDMA
MDMA was first synthesized in 1912 by German chemist Anton Köllisch at the pharmaceutical company Merck, though it was not initially intended for use as a recreational drug. Its psychoactive properties were rediscovered in the 1970s by chemist Alexander Shulgin, who popularized its use in psychotherapy.
Historical Facts Of MDMA
In the 1980s, MDMA gained popularity in the party and rave scenes but was criminalized in many countries by the mid-1980s due to concerns over misuse.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
MDMA-Assisted Therapy for PTSD
One of the biggest stories surrounding MDMA is its potential approval for therapeutic use. In 2021, Phase 3 clinical trials conducted by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) showed that MDMA-assisted therapy significantly reduced symptoms of PTSD in patients. The FDA is expected to approve MDMA-assisted therapy as early as 2024, marking a major milestone in psychedelic medicine.
Ecstasy Overdoses and Harm Reduction Programs
As MDMA continues to be a popular recreational drug, there have been significant concerns about overdoses and the dangers of impure ecstasy pills. Harm reduction organizations, such as DanceSafe, promote pill testing at festivals and clubs to help users avoid dangerous substances, and this approach is gaining more support in countries like the Netherlands and the UK.
Rescheduling and Legalization Movements
As MDMA shows promise for therapeutic use, there has been increasing advocacy to reschedule MDMA under international and national drug laws. Many researchers and advocates are pushing for MDMA to be moved from Schedule I to Schedule II in the US, which would recognize its medical potential and allow for broader research and therapeutic use.
Global Status Of MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine) – 2024*
MDMA is illegal in most countries under strict regulations and classified as a Schedule I substance due to concerns about its misuse as a recreational drug. However, it’s undergoing clinical trials for therapeutic use in some places.
Countries where MDMA is illegal:
USA: Schedule I substance, though MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD is under review, with potential legalization for medical use by 2024.
UK: Class A drug.
Canada: Schedule III.
Australia: MDMA has been approved for medical use in treating PTSD starting from July 2023.
Exceptions:
Switzerland: MDMA is available for use in clinical trials for PTSD treatment.
Salvinorin A (Salvia Divinorum – Hoja de la Pastora)
Salvinorin A is the active compound in the plant Salvia divinorum, also called Hoja de la Pastora or Hierba de la Pastora (Spanish for leaf or herb of the shepherd), a powerful and short-acting hallucinogen. It induces dissociative states, visual distortions, and often intense spiritual experiences.
Discovery Of Salvia
While Salvia divinorum has been used for centuries by the Mazatec shamans of Mexico in spiritual ceremonies, the active compound Salvinorin A was first isolated in 1982 by American pharmacologist Alfredo Ortega.
Historical Facts Of Salvia
Unlike other classic psychedelics, Salvinorin A is a kappa opioid receptor agonist, making its mechanism of action unique.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding Salvinorin A (Salvia Divinorum)
Increased Regulation and Bans of Salvia Divinorum
Throughout the 2000s and early 2010s, several countries and US states introduced bans on Salvia divinorum, following reports of its potent dissociative effects and viral videos showing its recreational use. For example, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has been closely monitoring Salvia, though it has yet to classify it as a federally controlled substance. Many states have independently banned its sale.
Research into The Unique Mechanism of Action Of Salvia Divinorum
Salvinorin A has been a focus of research for its unique properties as a kappa opioid receptor agonist, making it different from classical psychedelics like LSD or psilocybin. In 2021, studies explored its potential to treat pain and mood disorders without the risk of addiction commonly associated with other opioids.
Controversies Surrounding Recreational Use Of Salvia Divinorum
As Salvia gained popularity online in the early 2000s, concerns arose about its potential misuse and psychological risks, including reports of users experiencing extreme dissociative states and mental health issues. This led to increased pressure for regulation, with many countries and states banning its sale or distribution.
Global Status Of Salvinorin A (Salvia divinorum) – 2024*
Salvia divinorum and its active compound Salvinorin A have mixed legal statuses worldwide, with some countries banning it, while others allow it to be sold in natural form.
Countries where Salvia is illegal:
USA: Salvia is controlled in several states, though it is not federally scheduled. States like Delaware, Florida, and Louisiana have banned it.
Australia: Salvia is illegal in most states.
Canada: Not scheduled federally but regulated at the provincial level.
Countries where Salvia is legal:
Mexico: Legal for traditional use by indigenous groups.
Spain and Portugal: Legal for personal use, though commercial sales may be restricted.
Ibogaine
Ibogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in the root bark of the African shrub Tabernanthe iboga. It induces powerful, long-lasting psychedelic experiences and has been used in treating addiction.
Discovery Of Ibogaine
Ibogaine was isolated in 1901 by French pharmacologist D. Goutarel. However, its anti-addictive properties were not widely studied until the 1960s when heroin addict Howard Lotsof discovered that ibogaine helped him overcome his addiction.
Historical Facts of Ibogaine
Ibogaine is central to the Bwiti religion in West Africa, where it is used in initiation rites and healing ceremonies.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding Ibogaine
Ibogaine as a Treatment for Opioid Addiction
Ibogaine has gained significant attention for its potential to treat opioid addiction, especially in light of the global opioid crisis. In 2022, clinics in Mexico and Costa Rica reported a surge in patients seeking ibogaine therapy, with some studies indicating that a single treatment can reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings for opioids.
Ibogaine’s Legal Status and Push for Clinical Trials
While ibogaine remains illegal in most countries, there has been a growing push to legalize it for therapeutic use. Advocates and researchers are calling for more clinical trials to establish its safety and efficacy, with some success stories leading to calls for expanded access in countries like New Zealand and Brazil.
Safety Concerns and Deaths Linked To Ibogaine
Despite its promise, ibogaine has been linked to several deaths, often related to heart complications. These incidents have raised serious concerns about the safety of ibogaine treatment, particularly when administered in unregulated clinics. In response, experts have called for standardized medical protocols and more research into its potential risks.
Global Status Of Ibogaine – 2024*
Ibogaine is illegal in many countries, though it’s sometimes available in specialized clinics for addiction treatment.
Countries where Ibogaine is illegal:
USA: Schedule I substance.
Canada and Australia: Ibogaine is illegal, though clinical use for addiction treatment is sometimes permitted.
Countries where Ibogaine is legal:
Mexico: Ibogaine clinics operate legally and are popular for treating addiction.
New Zealand: Available for medical treatment under strict guidelines.
Brazil: Ibogaine treatment is legal and used in addiction clinics.
2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine)
2C-B is a synthetic psychedelic that induces mild hallucinations and empathogenic effects, often described as a cross between MDMA and LSD.
Discovery Of 2C-B
2C-B was synthesized in 1974 by Alexander Shulgin, a chemist famous for discovering and popularizing many psychedelic compounds.
Historical Facts Of 2C B
2C B became popular in the underground rave and club scenes in the 1990s before being classified as illegal in many countries.
These substances have complex histories involving traditional cultural use, modern scientific discovery, and political regulation. Psychedelics are now being revisited for their potential therapeutic uses, particularly in treating conditions like depression, PTSD, and addiction.
News Stories and Developments Surrounding 2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine)
2C-B’s Rising Popularity in Club Scenes
2C-B has seen a resurgence in popularity within the global electronic music and festival scenes. Known for its empathogenic and psychedelic effects, it has become a “designer drug” of choice in countries like South Africa, where it’s often referred to as “Pink Cocaine.” This has led to increased attention from law enforcement and media reports on its rise.
Emergence of 2C-B in Research
2C-B has begun to attract interest from researchers exploring its effects on mental health, though research is still in its early stages. Some scientists are looking into its potential for therapeutic applications, particularly in psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy.
Crackdowns and Law Enforcement Operations Against 2C-B
In countries like Brazil and South Africa, law enforcement agencies have increased efforts to curb the distribution and sale of 2C-B, which is often sold as an alternative to MDMA. Several large-scale busts of 2C-B manufacturing operations have been reported in recent years, signaling the drug’s growing presence in the underground market.
Global Status Of 2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine) – Updated 2024*
2C-B is illegal in most countries, classified as a controlled substance.
Countries where 2C-B is illegal:
USA: Schedule I substance.
UK: Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act.
Canada: Schedule III drug.
Exceptions:
Brazil and South Africa: 2C-B is decriminalized or unregulated in some regions but may still face restrictions on production and distribution.
Summary of Legal Status:
Generally Illegal Worldwide: LSD, MDMA, DMT, 2C-B, and Ibogaine.
Decriminalized or Religious Exemptions: Psilocybin, Ayahuasca, Mescaline (Peyote), and Salvinorin A in certain countries.
Therapeutic Research/Medical Exceptions: LSD (Switzerland), MDMA (USA, Australia), Psilocybin (Canada, Australia), DMT (Brazil, Peru), and Ibogaine (Mexico, New Zealand).
The legal landscape for psychedelics is rapidly evolving, especially as research continues to reveal potential therapeutic benefits.
*Disclaimer
The information provided in this article is for informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to promote the use of any illegal substances or to encourage any unlawful behavior. Drug laws vary significantly by country and region, and it is crucial to be aware of and comply with the legal status of substances in your location. The present article has been written by gathering information from trusted sources, even though it could possibly contain errors due to changes in regulations in specific regions and possible brand new discoveries.