Shamanism
Shamanism is a complex system of religious and spiritual beliefs and practices found in many indigenous cultures around the world. It is often characterized by the presence of shamans, who are spiritual figures believed to have the ability to mediate between the human and spirit worlds. Anthropologists view shamanism as a form of religious and healing practice predating organized religions and has evolved independently in various cultures throughout history.
Shamanism refers to a set of spiritual practices and belief systems where shamans act as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds. Anthropologists often describe it as one of the oldest spiritual traditions, with its origins possibly dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period, around 40,000 years ago. It is found in diverse cultures, from the Siberian tundra to the Amazon rainforest and Australian Aboriginal societies.
Key Features of Shamanism
Universal Features
Shamanism is a cross-cultural phenomenon that appears independently across many regions, including Siberia, North America, South America, Africa, and Australia.
The core of shamanism involves ritual practices where the shaman enters a trance state to communicate with the spirit world for guidance, healing, or divination.
Altered States of Consciousness
Shamans enter altered states of consciousness through methods such as drumming, chanting, fasting, sensory deprivation, and the use of psychoactive substances like ayahuasca or psilocybin mushrooms. These altered states are considered essential for the shaman’s spiritual journeys or soul flights.
Animistic Worldview
Shamanism is often linked to animism, the belief that all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers—possess a spiritual essence. Shamans interact with these spirits and maintain relationships between the human and non-human world, ensuring balance and harmony.
Healing and Ritual Practices in Shamanism
Healing is a central aspect of shamanism. Anthropologists note that shamans use their knowledge of medicinal plants, as well as their spiritual abilities, to cure illnesses that are seen as stemming from spiritual imbalances or attacks from evil spirits.
Rituals may include soul retrieval, where a shaman retrieves a lost soul believed to be the cause of illness, or spiritual cleansing, aimed at removing harmful spirits from a person’s body or home.
Social and Psychological Functions in Shamanism
From a functionalist anthropological perspective, shamanism serves social and psychological community roles. Shamans provide social cohesion through communal rituals and play a key role in conflict resolution and managing crises such as illness or misfortune.
Shamans also offer psychological support, helping individuals deal with trauma, fear, or existential crises through spiritual counseling and guidance.
Their rituals often serve as a form of psychological therapy for the community.
Cultural Specificity of Shamanism
Though shamanism shares core features across cultures, it is highly specific to the cultural context in which it is practiced. For example, the shamanic traditions of the Sami people of northern Europe differ significantly from those of the Shipibo-Conibo in the Amazon. Anthropologists examine these specific contexts to understand how shamanism functions within different social, economic, and environmental frameworks.
Shamans
A shaman is a spiritual practitioner, typically within indigenous or tribal societies, who is believed to possess the ability to communicate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. From an anthropological standpoint, a shaman functions as a healer, diviner, mediator, and guide, playing a key role in maintaining social and spiritual balance.
Key characteristics of shamans (Generally Across The World)
Communication with Spirits
Shamans interact with spirits or supernatural beings, including gods, ancestors, animals, and natural elements. They often enter altered states of consciousness, such as trances, to journey into the spirit world.
Healing Abilities
Shamans are commonly believed to heal physical, psychological, and spiritual ailments. This is done by restoring balance between the human and spiritual realms, often by retrieving lost souls or removing harmful spirits.
Ritual Specialists
Shamans perform various rituals, including ceremonies for healing, fertility, protection, hunting success, and community welfare. Rituals often involve drumming, chanting, dancing, and the use of hallucinogens or sacred plants to achieve a trance state.
Mediator Role
As mediators, shamans often help guide spirits of the deceased, ensure good fortune for the community, and maintain harmony between humans and the spiritual or natural world.
Possession of Special Knowledge
Shamans are seen as custodians of sacred knowledge and wisdom. They often understand herbal remedies, divination techniques, and rituals that are passed down through generations.
Anthropological Perspectives on Shamanism
Anthropologists like Mircea Eliade, in his seminal work Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (1951), described shamanism as an archaic technique that represented the earliest form of religious and spiritual practice. Eliade argued that shamanism reflected a universal human desire to connect with the supernatural, predating organized religion and serving as a foundation for later religious systems.
More recent anthropological theories view shamanism through the lens of evolutionary psychology, positing that the shaman’s role may have evolved to fulfill social and survival needs, including mental health management, community leadership, and conflict resolution.
Contemporary Shamanism: Revivals and Neo-Shamanism
In the modern era, anthropologists have observed a resurgence of interest in shamanism, particularly in the form of neo-shamanism and New Age spiritual movements. Modern shamans, often found in urban contexts or Western societies, may combine ancient practices with elements of psychology, holistic medicine, and environmental activism.
Neo-shamanism lacks the traditional community-centered focus of indigenous shamanism but retains the core elements of spiritual journeys and healing practices. This modern revival reflects a growing interest in indigenous knowledge systems and the search for spirituality outside of organized religion.
Shamanism and Surrounded Mysticism Across the World by Region
Shamanism and Mysticism have deep historical roots across the world, influencing spiritual traditions, healing practices, and cultural heritage.
Mysticism and shamanism are deeply interconnected spiritual traditions that have shaped the religious and cultural landscapes of many regions around the world. Both emphasize direct, personal experiences with the divine or the spiritual realms, but while mysticism typically focuses on an individual’s inner journey to transcendence, shamanism involves a mediator who interacts with spiritual entities for the community’s benefit.
South America (Amazon Basin, Andes, Chaco, Southern Cone, and Brazil Shamanism) – Mysticism and Shamanism
In South America, shamanism and mysticism have deep, ancient roots that continue to influence the spiritual and cultural practices of Indigenous peoples across the continent.
The rich diversity of cultures in the Amazon, Andes, and surrounding regions has produced unique forms of shamanism, each closely tied to the natural environment, cosmology, and spiritual beliefs.
Shamanism in South America is ancient, stretching back to the earliest civilizations. The Amazon Basin and Andes have long been centers of shamanic traditions, where Indigenous peoples developed complex spiritual systems based on their relationship with the natural world.
The Inca Empire (1438–1533) also incorporated elements of shamanism into its state religion, blending spiritual practices with reverence for Pachamama (Mother Earth) and the Apus (mountain spirits).
Heritage Of Shamanism in South America
Amazonian and Andean shamanism have survived colonization and modernization through resilience and adaptation. Many Indigenous communities in South America continue to practice traditional shamanism, often blending it with Catholicism.
There has been a global interest in South American shamanism, particularly through ayahuasca tourism, which has both positive and negative impacts on Indigenous traditions.
Process of Becoming a Shaman in South America
In the Amazon, shamans traditionally became curanderos after receiving a calling through dreams, visions, or illness. Apprenticeship under an experienced shaman is a lengthy process, often involving the dieta (a period of isolation and fasting to connect with the spirit of the plants).
In the Andes, the process of becoming a shaman also involves an apprenticeship under a master shaman, learning to conduct rituals, communicate with the spirits of nature, and maintain the balance between the human world and the sacred forces of the mountains.
Shamanism in the Amazon Basin
The Amazon rainforest is home to some of the most well-known shamanic traditions in South America. The indigenous peoples of this region have a long history of shamanic practices closely connected to the natural world, particularly through the use of sacred plants and visionary healing rituals.
In the Amazon (Basin), shamanism revolves around the use of ayahuasca and other sacred plants for healing and spiritual insight. Shamans, known as curanderos or ayahuasqueros, conduct ceremonies in which participants drink ayahuasca and enter visions to communicate with spirits and receive healing.
Ayahuasca Shamanism
Regions: Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia
Key Indigenous Groups: Shipibo-Conibo, Asháninka, Kichwa, Tukano, Huni Kuin (Kaxinawá)
Core Practice: The central feature of Amazonian shamanism is the use of ayahuasca, a powerful psychoactive brew made from the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and Psychotria viridis leaves. The ayahuasca ceremony is led by a shaman (curandero, taita), who guides participants through a spiritual journey aimed at healing and gaining insight from the spirit world.
Mystical Elements of Amazonian Shamanism
Amazonian shamans work with plant spirits, particularly ayahuasca, to heal both physical and psychological ailments.
They sing icaros, sacred songs believed to invoke spiritual protection and healing.
During ayahuasca ceremonies, Amazonian shamans navigate the spirit world to retrieve lost souls, cleanse negative energies, and receive guidance from ancestors or spiritual beings.
Mysticism of Amazonian Shamanism
Ayahuasca is seen as a gateway to the spiritual realm, where Amazonian shamans interact with spirits, gods, and nature’s forces. It offers participants visions and insights into life, death, the cosmos, and their inner selves. Many view the process as a form of spiritual awakening or mystical experience, often interpreted as a direct encounter with the divine or cosmic forces.
Yopo and Tobacco Shamanism
Regions: Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil
Key Indigenous Groups: Yanomami, Piaroa, Barasana
Core Practice: In parts of the northern Amazon, shamans use the psychoactive snuff Yopo (made from Anadenanthera peregrina) and tobacco in their rituals. Shamans enter trance states and receive guidance from spirit beings. Tobacco, often referred to as a master plant, is used for protection and cleansing.
Mysticism (Yopo)
Yopo shamanic ceremonies, like ayahuasca rituals, involve communication with animal spirits, ancestors, and cosmic entities. Yopo shamans believe they can access hidden realms to understand the causes of illness and misfortune and restore harmony within the community.
Shamanism in the Andes
The Andean region, extending through the countries Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina, is home to ancient shamanic practices linked to Inca cosmology and pre-Columbian traditions. These practices emphasize a deep relationship with mountains (apus), earth (Pachamama), and the elements.
In the Andes, shamans, called pacos or yatiris, perform rituals to honor Pachamama and the Apus, offering despachos (offerings) of coca leaves, alcohol, and other items to ensure harmony with the natural world.
Pachamama and the Apus (Mountain Spirits)
Core Beliefs: In the Andes, shamanism revolves around a reverence for Pachamama (Mother Earth) and Apus (mountain spirits). Andean shamans, known as pacos or yatiris, act as intermediaries between the human and spiritual worlds, ensuring balance and harmony between people and nature.
Offerings and Rituals of the Andean Shamans
Andean shamans conduct offering ceremonies to Pachamama, often called despachos, in which they give gifts (such as coca leaves, llama fat, and alcohol) to the earth to ensure fertility, good harvests, and protection. They also climb sacred mountains to communicate with the apus.
Mysticism: Andean mysticism is deeply tied to cosmic energy and the spirits of nature. Shamans believe that everything is connected through a cosmic web of energy known as kawsay or life force, which they can manipulate through rituals. Healing in this context involves restoring the flow of this energy within individuals or the community.
Q’ero Shamanism
Region: Peru (descendants of the Incas)
Core Practice: The Q’ero people, descendants of the Inca, practice a form of shamanism focused on ritual offerings to Pachamama and the Apus. Their ceremonies involve intricate offerings called despachos, used to express gratitude and ask for blessings.
Mysticism in the Andes
The Q’ero shamans are considered wisdom keepers of ancient Inca knowledge, carrying out spiritual pilgrimages to sacred sites like Machu Picchu and Apu Ausangate. Mysticism in Q’ero culture is concerned with maintaining a balance between humans and nature, and shamans are seen as guardians of cosmic harmony.
Shamanism in Gran Chaco (Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia)
The Gran Chaco region is home to semi-nomadic Indigenous peoples whose shamanic traditions are less documented but are deeply connected to the harsh natural environment.
Mystical Traditions of the Chaco
Key Indigenous Groups: Guaraní, Toba, Mbyá
Core Practice: The shamans of the Gran Chaco serve as healers, protectors, and mediators between the tribe and the spiritual world. They use herbal medicines and engage in rituals involving dance, music, and trance to call upon the spirits for healing and protection.
Mysticism of Gran Chaco
Shamanic practices in the Chaco are centered on the belief in powerful natural spirits that can either help or harm humans. Mystical experiences often involve visions and dreams, which are interpreted by shamans as messages from the spirit world.
Shamanism in Southern Cone (Mapuche of Chile and Argentina)
The Mapuche people of Chile and Argentina have maintained a distinct shamanic tradition centered around the machi, a female or male shaman who performs healing and spiritual rituals.
Mapuche Machi
Core Practice: The machi are spiritual leaders responsible for healing the sick, communicating with ancestors, and protecting the community from malevolent spirits. They use a combination of herbs, chanting, and drumming to enter altered states of consciousness.
Mysticism of The Mapuche
The Mapuche cosmology views the world as divided into various planes, including the human world and the spirit world. Machis act as bridges between these worlds, using their spiritual powers to diagnose illnesses, which are often seen as caused by supernatural forces. They also protect the community from evil spirits or sorcery.
Mystical Heritage of The Mapuche
The role of the machi is inherited, often passed down through family lines, and those called to be a machi may experience visions or dreams indicating their spiritual path. Mapuche shamanism is closely linked to their resistance to colonization and the preservation of their cultural identity.
Shamanism in Brazil (Umbanda, Candomblé, and Syncretic Shamanism)
In Brazil, shamanism often takes the form of syncretic religions like Umbanda and Candomblé, which blend African, Indigenous, and Catholic traditions.
Umbanda and Candomblé
Core Practice: Both religions involve the worship of orishas (African deities) and ancestral spirits. Practitioners, including mediums and spiritual leaders (often viewed as modern-day shamans), enter trance states during ceremonies, allowing spirits or orishas to possess them and communicate with the community.
Mysticism in Brazil
Umbanda and Candomblé emphasize the connection between the physical and spiritual realms, with a focus on healing, protection, and spiritual guidance. Mystical experiences in these religions often involve possession, where participants become vessels for spirits, receiving divine messages or healing energy.
Spiritual Shamanic Heritage In Brazil
These Brazilian shamanic practices are rooted in African slave traditions, Indigenous beliefs, and European influences. Shamans in these traditions are often trained through initiation processes that involve spiritual purification, learning sacred chants, and mastering rituals for invoking deities and spirits.
Norse (Scandinavia – Völvas) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism in Scandinavia (Norse)
In Norse society, völvas (female shamans) and seiðr practitioners used magic to interact with spirits and control fate. They would enter trance states to communicate with spirits, foretell the future, and bring divine wisdom to the people.
Mysticism in Scandinavia (Norse)
Mysticism in Norse culture revolved around the belief in the interconnectedness of all beings. Norse sagas and mythology suggest a mystical understanding of the world, where gods, humans, and nature were intertwined. Odin, the chief god, was associated with shamanic journeys and mystical wisdom, often seeking higher knowledge through self-sacrifice and intense spiritual trials (e.g., hanging from Yggdrasil, the World Tree).
History of Shamanism in Scandinavia (Norse)
In ancient Norse society, shamanic practices were linked to the mystical tradition of seiðr, a form of magic primarily practiced by women known as völvas (seers) but also by gods like Odin. Seiðr was used for prophecy, healing, and influencing fate.
Tradition: Völvas were highly respected figures who entered trances to communicate with spirits, and their rituals often involved chanting and drumming. They were seen as mediators between humans and the gods or the forces of nature.
Heritage of Shamanism in The Norse Tradition
Shamanism in the Norse tradition became intertwined with pagan rituals, and mythological figures like Odin and Freyja, and eventually faded after the Christianization of Scandinavia. However, remnants of these practices exist today in modern Norse paganism or Heathenry.
Process of Becoming a Shaman (Historically)
Völvas were typically trained from a young age in the mystical arts, learning the use of herbs, chants, and trance induction. Often, the völva would inherit the role through family lineage or a spiritual calling.
Present Day: Neo-pagan revivals in the Scandinavian region have reignited interest in ancient Norse practices. Modern practitioners follow reconstructed rites inspired by historical records, although few claim to be full shamans in the traditional sense.
Siberia (Tungus and Olkhon Shamans) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Siberia
Siberian shamanism, especially among the Tungus and Buryats, is one of the most well-documented forms of traditional shamanism. The shamans (often called “Tungus shamans” or “Olkhon shamans”) would enter trance states through drumming, chanting, and the use of intoxicating substances like fly agaric mushrooms to contact spirits, heal the sick, and navigate the spirit world.
Mysticism in Siberia
Siberian mysticism is deeply rooted in the animistic belief that every element of nature—stones, rivers, trees—has a spirit. Shamans are the bridge to this spirit world. In the Buryat region, the line between the mystic and shamanic experience blurs, as the shamans would seek cosmic knowledge, often gaining mystical insights into the universe, human nature, and fate through their interactions with spiritual forces.
History of Shamanism In Siberia
Siberia is considered one of the cradles of shamanism, especially among the Tungus (Evenk) people, from whom the word “shaman” originates. Shamanism here is thousands of years old, with strong connections to animism, nature worship, and communication with spirits.
Tradition of Shamanism In Siberia
Siberian shamans use drumming, chanting, and ecstatic dancing to enter trance states and travel to the spirit world. They work with nature spirits and ancestors for healing, hunting success, and spiritual guidance. Rituals often involve spirit helpers or animal guides.
Heritage of Shamanism In Siberia
Shamanism in Siberia was suppressed under Soviet rule, but since the fall of the USSR, it has experienced a resurgence. Many indigenous communities, such as the Buryats and Tuvans, have restored their shamanic traditions, intertwining them with modern life.
Process of Becoming a Shaman (Historically)
Traditionally, shamans were chosen by the spirits, often marked by illness or visions. The calling could not be ignored, and those chosen would undergo rigorous apprenticeships under an experienced shaman.
Present Day
Today, the process of becoming a shaman still involves a calling, often recognized through visions or dreams. Formal training continues to be handed down from elderly shamans, and many are initiated through rituals and ceremonies.
Mongolia (Chinggis Khan’s Shaman, Tengerism) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Mongolia
In Mongolia, Tengerism is the traditional spiritual belief system that involves the worship of Tengri, the eternal blue sky, and spirits of nature. Shamans in Mongolia were, and still are, essential mediators between humans and the spiritual world. Chinggis Khan’s shaman, Kokochu (Teb-Tengri), played a critical role in the Khan’s rise to power, conducting rituals to ensure divine favor in battles and guiding spiritual decisions.
Mysticism in Mongolia
Mongolian mysticism is centered around the Great Eternal Blue Sky (Tengri), a concept that transcends personal shamanic practice and focuses on an all-encompassing spiritual reality that governs both humans and nature. The Mongol view of the cosmos was mystical in its emphasis on harmony with these spiritual forces, with shamans acting as intermediaries between mortals and the divine.
History of Shamanism in Mongolia (Tangerism)
Tengerism is the ancient shamanic tradition of Mongolia, centered around the worship of Tengri, the sky god. Shamanism in Mongolia has a rich history intertwined with Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan), who was supported by shamans and was believed to be favored by Tengri.
Tradition of Shamanism In Mongolia
Mongolian shamans (known as bood or zairan) serve as intermediaries between humans and the natural and spiritual worlds. They use rituals, drumming, and chanting to summon spirits and ancestors for guidance and healing. Shamanism is deeply connected to the land and the elements, with particular reverence for mountains and rivers.
Heritage o Shamanism In Mongolia
Shamanism was suppressed under Soviet influence but has seen a powerful revival since Mongolia’s transition to democracy in the 1990s. Today, it is widely practiced, often in combination with Buddhism, the dominant religion.
Process of Becoming a Shaman In Mongolia (Historically)
Traditionally, shamans were chosen by the spirits through a calling, often after an illness or spiritual crisis. Those selected would undergo training under the mentorship of an elder shaman, learning rituals, songs, and the use of spiritual objects such as drums.
Present Day: The process remains similar, with individuals often feeling a calling through dreams or personal crises. Today, Mongolian shamans might incorporate elements of Buddhism, blending ancient traditions with modern spiritual needs.
Mesoamerica (Mexico, Aztec, Maya – Quetzalcoatl, Maria Sabina) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Mesoamerica
In Mesoamerica, shamans or spiritual leaders like Maria Sabina (a Mazatec shaman) used sacred plants like psilocybin mushrooms for healing and communicating with the divine. Aztec priests were often considered shaman-like figures, mediating between humans and gods through elaborate rituals, blood sacrifices, and the use of hallucinogenic substances.
Mysticism In Mesoamerica
The Aztecs and Maya believed in a multi-layered universe where spiritual and cosmic forces governed human existence. Deities like Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, embodied the mystical connection between the heavens and the earth. Maya rulers, who were often viewed as shaman-kings, underwent mystical journeys to communicate with the gods, ascending to the heavens or descending into the underworld in visionary states.
History Of Shamanism in Mesoamerica
Shamanism has a long history in Mesoamerica, particularly among the Maya and Aztec civilizations. Priests in these societies often fulfilled shamanic roles, using rituals, sacrifices, and hallucinogens to interact with deities and the spirit world.
Tradition Of Shamanism in Mesoamerica
Among the Maya, kings were often seen as shamans who performed rituals to communicate with the gods. The use of sacred plants like psilocybin mushrooms and peyote was integral in rituals aimed at divine communication and healing.
Heritage Of Shamanism in Mesoamerica
Although Spanish colonization largely suppressed traditional shamanic practices, many Indigenous groups in Mexico have preserved their shamanic heritage. Today, rituals involving sacred plants like ayahuasca and mushrooms are practiced by shamans, known as curanderos or taitas.
Process of Becoming a Shaman in Mesoamerica (Historically)
In pre-colonial times, Mesoamerican shamans were chosen through divine signs, often involving visions or physical ailments interpreted as spiritual initiations. They would undergo training in herbal medicine, ritual knowledge, and communication with the gods.
Present Day: In modern times, individuals often seek out curanderos for spiritual guidance and healing. Training remains a deeply personal experience, involving apprenticeships and learning from elders, though some contemporary shamans integrate elements of Catholicism or New Age spirituality.
North America (Lakota Sioux, Inuit) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In North America (Lakota Sioux)
The Lakota Sioux and Inuit cultures are rich with shamanic traditions. In the Lakota tradition, figures like Black Elk were regarded as visionaries who traveled to the spirit world and returned with knowledge to guide their people. Among the Inuit, shamans communicated with Sila, the spirit of life, to maintain harmony with nature and the spiritual realms.
Mysticism in North America (Lakota Sioux)
Lakota mysticism is evident in Black Elk’s visionary experiences, where he described journeys to the “Hoop of the World”, interacting with divine spirits, and understanding the universal web of life. The Inuit believed in a mystical, animistic universe where every living being and natural element had a spirit, and shamans (known as angakkuq) played a key role in maintaining the balance between humans and these spiritual entities.
History of Shamanism (Lakota Sioux)
Among the Lakota Sioux, shamanic practices have historically been intertwined with their vision quest traditions and spiritual leaders known as medicine men. Figures like Black Elk are famous for their visionary experiences, where they traveled to spiritual realms to receive guidance.
Tradition Of Shamanism In North America (Lakota Sioux, Inuit)
Lakota shamans are central figures in their spiritual life, conducting rituals like the Sun Dance and sweat lodge ceremonies. Vision quests, where individuals would go alone into nature to seek visions, were common initiation practices for potential shamans.
Heritage of Shamanism in North America (Lakota Sioux, Inuit)
The U.S. government’s attempts to suppress Native American religions in the 19th and early 20th centuries weakened many shamanic traditions. However, many tribes, including the Lakota, have successfully preserved their practices.
Process of Becoming a Shaman In North America (Lakota Sioux, Inuit) – Traditionally
Traditionally, the path to becoming a shaman in North America involved receiving a vision or spiritual calling, often during a vision quest. The individual would then train under a mentor, learning sacred rituals and healing practices.
Present Day
The process remains much the same, though contemporary shamans often combine traditional teachings with modern understandings of spirituality and healing.
History of Shamanism in North America (Inuit)
Inuit shamans (known as angakkuq) have historically been responsible for maintaining the spiritual health of their communities, particularly through their relationship with Sila, the spirit that pervades nature.
Tradition Of Shamanism In North America (Inuit)
Inuit shamans use drumming, chanting, and spiritual journeys to communicate with animal spirits and ancestors. They play an important role in ensuring successful hunts, healing illnesses, and guiding souls after death.
Heritage Of SHamanis In North America (Inuit)
European colonization and Christian missionary work suppressed many traditional Inuit shamanic practices. Despite this, there has been a modern resurgence in reclaiming Inuit cultural heritage, including shamanism.
Process of Becoming a Shaman In North America (Inuit)
Inuit shamans were chosen by the spirits, often marked by illness or strange experiences as children. They would then train under the guidance of an elder angakkuq, learning how to travel to the spirit world and communicate with nature spirits.
Present Day
Contemporary Inuit shamans continue the traditional practices, though some have incorporated elements of Christianity and modern spiritual practices.
Mali (Dogon People, Bambara People) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Mali
The Dogon people are known for their complex shamanic cosmology and ritual practices, deeply influenced by spiritual intermediaries like Ogotemmêli, who explained their intricate system of cosmology and spiritual knowledge. The Bambara people worshipped the Chiwara, a mythical being that taught them agriculture, and shamans (or spiritual leaders) conducted rituals to honor this divine teacher.
Mysticism In Mali
Dogon mysticism is one of the most fascinating in Africa, particularly due to its cosmic focus, with the Sirius star system playing a key role in their spiritual worldview. Dogon shamans were seen as cosmic navigators who could access hidden knowledge about the universe and pass it down to their people. Among the Bambara, the Chiwara rituals celebrate the mystical unity between humans and nature, ensuring fertility and prosperity through spiritual harmony.
History of Shamanism In Mali (Dogon People)
The Dogon people have a complex spiritual tradition, rooted in a deep cosmology involving the Sirius star system. Shamans, or spiritual leaders, have historically served as interpreters of this cosmology and mediators with the spiritual realm.
Tradition Of Shamanism In Mali
Dogon shamans perform rituals to communicate with ancestral spirits and deities, using dance, masks, and chants. Their ceremonies are highly symbolic, representing the Dogon belief in the interconnectedness of the cosmos and the natural world.
Heritage Of Shamanism In Mali
The Dogon’s shamanic traditions have been preserved despite outside influences such as Islam and Christianity. Their cosmology
Greenland (Inuit Shamans, Anaruk) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Greenland (Inuit, Anaruk)
Among the Inuit of Greenland, shamans (often referred to as angakkuq) held powerful positions as spiritual healers and intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds. Shamans like Anaruk, a legendary figure, were believed to command the forces of nature, communicate with animal spirits, and guide souls to the afterlife.
Mysticism In Greenland (Inuit)
The Inuit worldview is deeply mystical, focusing on Sila, the life force present in all living beings and natural phenomena. Shamans would engage with this mystical energy to restore balance when it was disrupted, emphasizing the intimate spiritual connection between humans, nature, and the cosmos.
History Of Shamanism In Greenland (Inuit, Anaruk)
Inuit shamanism in Greenland, as in other Arctic regions, has existed for millennia. Shamans, known as angakoks, were central to the Inuit belief system, guiding the community in navigating the harsh Arctic environment.
Angakoks played a crucial role in maintaining the balance between humans and the powerful natural forces they believed inhabited their world, including spirits of animals, ancestors, and environmental phenomena.
Tradition Of Shamanism In Greenland (Inuit)
The role of the angakok was both spiritual and practical. They were responsible for interpreting the will of the spirits, predicting weather, ensuring hunting success, and curing illnesses, often thought to be caused by spiritual imbalances or the displeasure of spirits.
Rituals involved drumming, chanting, and entering trance states, often to communicate with spirits of animals or natural elements, or to travel to otherworldly realms for guidance or healing.
Heritage Of Shamanism in Greenland (Inuit, Anaruk)
Inuit shamanism is closely tied to animistic beliefs. Everything in nature was believed to have a soul, and the angakok was tasked with maintaining harmony between humans and these spiritual entities.
Christianity, introduced by European colonizers in the 18th century, led to a decline in traditional shamanic practices. However, elements of these beliefs persist in Inuit culture today.
Process of Becoming a Shaman in Greenland (Inuit)
Historically, becoming an angakok was not a formalized process but was believed to be a spiritual calling. Individuals often would receive the calling through visions or dreams. They trained under an experienced shaman, learning rituals, songs, and how to communicate with the spirit world.
In modern Greenland, traditional angakok practices have largely been replaced by Christian practices, but there has been a resurgence of interest in Inuit cultural heritage, including shamanic traditions, among some Greenlanders.
Persia (Ancient and Islamic Mysticism – Zoroastrianism, Zarathustra) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Persia
Zarathustra (Zoroaster), the founder of Zoroastrianism, is seen by some scholars as having shamanic traits due to his visionary experiences and direct communication with Ahura Mazda, the supreme god. His teachings emphasize the cosmic struggle between good and evil, with the human soul playing a central role.
Mysticism in Persia
Zoroastrian mysticism focuses on the battle between light and darkness, good and evil, as cosmic forces that shape reality. Zarathustra’s vision of a righteous, orderly universe influenced not only mysticism in Persia but also later mystical traditions in the Middle East. His dualistic vision of existence gave rise to deep contemplation of spiritual ethics and the ultimate destiny of the soul.
History of Shamanism in Persia
In ancient Persia (modern Iran), shamanism was not as prominent as it was in other regions, but traces of pre-Zoroastrian shamanic practices can be found in early Iranian tribal cultures. These early shamans likely acted as intermediaries between humans and divine forces, focusing on healing and divination.
With the advent of Zoroastrianism (c. 1200 BCE), much of Persia’s shamanic past was incorporated or overshadowed by more structured religious practices.
Tradition Of Shamanism In Perisa
In ancient Persia, mystical traditions were linked to nature worship, focusing on the veneration of fire, water, and the sky. Shamans would have engaged in rituals to ensure harmony with these natural forces.
In the Islamic period, Sufism (Islamic mysticism) replaced earlier shamanic practices, but Sufi mystics, known as dervishes, adopted some elements of shamanism, including trance-like states during their rituals and meditative practices.
Heritage of Shamanism in Persia
While formal shamanism faded with the rise of Zoroastrianism and Islam, its mystical elements influenced later religious practices, especially in Sufism, where asceticism, meditation, and spiritual journeys are central themes.
The ancient Persian connection with spiritual worlds through ecstatic experience lives on in the poetry of Rumi and the spiritual teachings of Sufism, which emphasize the soul’s union with the divine.
Process of Becoming a Shaman in Persia
In early Persia, individuals likely became shamans through spiritual apprenticeship and by demonstrating knowledge of the spirit world.
Today, Sufi practitioners go through a process of initiation and spiritual mentorship, where they learn mystical teachings, prayer, meditation, and how to enter ecstatic states through dance (such as the whirling dervishes) and recitation of zikr (devotional phrases).
Buryatia (Siberian Shamanism – Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov, Buryat Buddhism) – Mysticism and
Shamanism In Buryatia
In Buryatia, a region of Siberia, Tengerism and Buryat Buddhism blend traditional shamanism with Buddhist spiritual practices. Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov, a Buryat Buddhist lama, is a significant figure whose mysterious preservation after death is attributed to spiritual powers akin to shamanic abilities.
Mysticism In Buryatia
The Buryat mystical tradition emphasizes the integration of Buddhist enlightenment with shamanic practices. Shamans are seen as essential intermediaries between humans and the spiritual world, but Buddhist mysticism encourages direct personal enlightenment through meditation, compassion, and understanding of the nature of reality.
History of Shamanism in Buryatia
The Buryat people in Siberia have one of the most prominent and well-documented shamanic traditions, stretching back thousands of years. Buryat shamanism is closely tied to Mongolian shamanism and emphasizes the interaction with spirits of nature, ancestors, and the sky god Tengri.
Shamans played essential roles in tribal life, guiding people through spiritual crises, healing, and conducting rituals for good fortune in hunting and warfare.
Tradition of Shamanism in Buryatia
The Buryat shamans, or boo, maintain a highly ritualized practice that involves spirit communication, healing rituals, and divination. They also serve as mediators between the community and the spiritual world, including deities and ancestors.
Rituals often include the use of drums, chanting, and entering trance states to call upon spirits for guidance or healing.
Heritage Of Shamanism In Buryatia
Buryat shamanism was severely suppressed during the Soviet era, with many shamans persecuted or forced underground. However, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been a significant revival of shamanic traditions in Buryatia, with modern shamans now openly practicing their rituals and healing ceremonies.
Process of Becoming a Shaman In Buryatia
Traditionally, individuals became shamans after receiving a calling through visions, dreams, or serious illness. This calling often came from a spirit ancestor, and the person would be initiated by an older shaman.
Today, while some Buryat shamans still follow this traditional calling, there are also formalized shamanic organizations where practitioners undergo training, learning ancient rituals, sacred songs, and herbal medicine.
Mexico (Mazatec Shamanism and Maria Sabina) – Mysticism and Shamanism
Shamanism In Mexico (Mazatec)
Maria Sabina, a Mazatec shaman from Mexico, used psilocybin mushrooms in her rituals to heal and connect with the divine. Her work, which involved singing and chanting to summon spiritual forces, has deeply influenced modern spiritual and psychedelic movements.
Mysticism In Mexico (Mazatec)
Mazatec mysticism revolves around the sacred nature of the land and plants, particularly the holy children (psilocybin mushrooms). Maria Sabina’s healing ceremonies were mystical experiences, where participants were guided to commune with the divine through visions
History Of Shamanism In Mazatec
The Mazatec people of Oaxaca, Mexico, have a rich shamanic tradition, with a particular focus on the use of sacred mushrooms (psilocybin mushrooms) in spiritual and healing ceremonies. These mushroom rituals are believed to date back thousands of years, with the Mazatecs using the mushrooms to communicate with spirits and deities.
Maria Sabina (1894–1985) was a renowned Mazatec shaman who became famous for her use of sacred mushrooms in healing rituals and is often credited with introducing the modern world to the Mazatec mushroom tradition.
Tradition Of Shamanism In Mazatec
Mazatec shamans, or curanderos, use psilocybin mushrooms in healing ceremonies known as veladas. During these ceremonies, the shaman enters a trance state and uses the mushrooms to access the spirit world, diagnose illnesses, and communicate with divine beings for healing guidance.
Maria Sabina’s rituals combined Christian elements with Indigenous spirituality, including the use of chanting, prayers, and incantations to invoke the mushrooms’ spiritual power.
Heritage of Shamanism in Mazatec
While Maria Sabina’s fame led to increased interest in Mazatec shamanism, it also brought unwanted attention, with outsiders (particularly Westerners in the 1960s) coming to Oaxaca to seek spiritual experiences. This led to tension between the Mazatecs and the outside world, but today, Mazatec shamanism remains an integral part of Indigenous cultural identity.
Process of Becoming a Shaman in Mazatec
In Mazatec tradition, shamans often become curanderos after receiving a spiritual calling through a dream or illness. They undergo initiation ceremonies, where they learn the sacred rituals, chants, and how to use the mushrooms for healing.
Today, this process remains much the same, with younger shamans training under experienced elders, but the influence of tourism and modernization has also altered how these practices are viewed and performed.
Prominent Shamans, Historical and Mythological Across The World
Shamans have played crucial roles in their communities throughout history, serving as healers, spiritual guides, and intermediaries between the physical and spiritual realms. Some shamans have achieved legendary or historical prominence due to their exceptional abilities, the stories surrounding them, or their influence on culture. Below is a detailed look at some of the most prominent shamans, either from historical records or mythology, spanning different regions and time periods:
Dangun (Korea)
Legendary Status
Dangun is a legendary figure in Korean mythology, believed to be the founder of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom. He is said to be the son of a god (Hwanung) and a bear-woman, embodying the shamanic role of a mediator between the divine and human worlds.
Shamanic Legacy
Although Dangun is considered a mythological figure, he is often associated with early shamanistic practices in Korea. Many shamans in Korea, called Mudang, claim spiritual lineage from Dangun, reinforcing his prominence in Korean spiritual history.
Völvas (Norse Mythology)
Role in Norse Society of Völvas
Völvas were female shamans or seers in Norse mythology, practicing the art of seiðr, a form of shamanic magic. They were revered for their ability to travel between the worlds of the living and the dead, foretelling the future, and influencing fate.
Prominent Figures of Völvas
In the Norse sagas, one of the most famous Völvas is the seeress from the “Völuspá” (The Prophecy of the Seeress), who provides the gods with crucial knowledge about the fate of the world, including the events of Ragnarok.
Chinggis Khan’s Shaman (Mongolia)
Historical Significance of Chinggis Khan
According to Mongol tradition, Chinggis (Genghis) Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire, had a personal shaman named Kokochu (also called Teb-Tengri). Kokochu was a powerful figure who acted as a spiritual advisor to the Khan.
Shamanic Influence of Chinggis Khan
Kokochu performed rituals to ensure the success of Chinggis Khan’s conquests, and he held a position of great influence in the court. His role underscores the importance of shamanism in Mongol political and spiritual life.
Black Elk (North America, Lakota Sioux)
Historical Figure
Black Elk (1863–1950) was a famous medicine man and holy person of the Oglala Lakota Sioux. He is best known for his spiritual teachings and his visionary experiences, which were recorded in the book “Black Elk Speaks”.
Visionary Power
Black Elk had a profound vision at the age of nine, where he was taken to the spirit world and received guidance from the Six Grandfathers. His visions and teachings played a crucial role in Lakota spirituality, and he was involved in significant historical events like the Battle of Little Bighorn and the Wounded Knee Massacre.
Maria Sabina (Mexico, Mazatec People)
Historical Figure
Maria Sabina (1894–1985) was a renowned Mazatec curandera (healer) and shaman from Oaxaca, Mexico. She gained international fame for her use of psilocybin mushrooms (locally known as “holy children”).
Legacy and Impact
Maria Sabina’s rituals attracted Western visitors, including R. Gordon Wasson, a mycologist who brought knowledge of psychedelic mushrooms to the West in the 1950s. Sabina’s work has had a lasting impact on Western spiritual and psychedelic movements, though she lamented the commercial exploitation of her sacred traditions.
Manuel Córdova-Rios (1887–1978) – Peru (Amazon)
Historical Role
A Peruvian mestizo who, as a young man, was captured by a group of Huni Kuin (Kaxinawá) Indians in the Amazon. He trained under their shamans, learning their healing traditions and the use of ayahuasca (a psychoactive brew used for spiritual journeys and healing).
Contribution
He is known for his knowledge of ayahuasca healing ceremonies and for bridging Indigenous Amazonian practices with Western scientific and spiritual curiosity. His story was shared widely in the book “Wizard of the Upper Amazon” by F. Bruce Lamb, where he details his training and experiences with the Huni Kuin shamans.
Legacy
Córdova-Rios is celebrated for preserving Amazonian healing practices and for his efforts to educate others about the rich spiritual traditions of the Amazon.
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui – Peru (Inca Empire)
Historical Role: Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, also called Pachacútec (Quechua: Pachakutiy Inka Yupanki), the 9th ruler of the Inca Empire in the 15th century, was not a shaman in the strictest sense, but his reign was deeply intertwined with Inca religious and spiritual traditions. He is credited with organizing Inca society and ritual practices around reverence for Pachamama (Mother Earth) and the Apus (mountain spirits).
Contribution of Pachacuti
Under his leadership, the Inca shamanic tradition was formalized in state ceremonies, focusing on the veneration of natural forces. Inca priests and spiritual leaders would often serve as intermediaries between the emperor and the gods, performing rituals to ensure the prosperity of the empire.
Legacy Of Pachacuti
Pachacuti’s reign had a lasting impact on the spiritual heritage of the Andes, where elements of Inca shamanism continue to this day, particularly in regions of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador.
Quetzalcóatl – Mesoamerica (Aztec and Toltec Mythology)
Mythical Figure Of Quetzalcóatl
Quetzalcóatl is one of the most revered deities in Aztec and Toltec mythology but is also seen as a cultural hero and a shamanic figure. He is often associated with knowledge, healing, and the use of spiritual power for the benefit of humanity.
Mythological Figure Of Quetzalcóatl
Quetzalcoatl, the “Feathered Serpent,” is one of the most prominent deities in Aztec and Toltec mythology, revered as a god of wind, learning, and fertility. Although primarily known as a deity, some scholars argue that early interpretations of Quetzalcoatl portray him as a shamanic figure or leader who gained divine status.
Shamanic Traits Of Of Quetzalcóatl
His connection to the elements, particularly the wind, and his association with transformation (serpent and bird) highlight qualities often associated with shamans. Some stories depict Quetzalcoatl as a wise ruler or priest who underwent spiritual rituals and sacrifices to achieve higher knowledge.
Contribution Of Quetzalcóatl
As a mythical shaman, Quetzalcóatl represents the merging of divine wisdom and earthly shamanism, guiding the people in spiritual practices, healing rituals, and knowledge of the stars.
Legacy Of Quetzalcóatl
The figure of Quetzalcóatl has influenced many spiritual leaders in Latin America, particularly in Indigenous groups that have continued to blend their ancient shamanic traditions with modern religious practices.
Taita Querubín Queta Alvarado – Colombia (Amazon)
Historical Role
Taita Querubín is one of the most respected shamans (known as taitas) of the Siona people of the Putumayo region in Colombia. He is known for his deep knowledge of ayahuasca (yage) and his healing ceremonies that combine spiritual insight with physical and emotional healing.
Contribution
He has played an essential role in preserving and promoting Amazonian shamanic traditions, particularly in his use of yagé for spiritual healing. His work has brought attention to the importance of Indigenous knowledge systems and their relevance to contemporary issues like mental health and wellness.
Legacy
Taita Querubín continues to be a living symbol of Amazonian shamanism, regularly participating in ceremonies and teaching younger generations the sacred traditions of the Siona people.
Chiwanté (Also known as Sorcier Chiwanté) – Amazon (Tukano People of Brazil and Colombia)
Historical Role
A prominent shaman among the Tukano people in the Amazon region of Brazil and Colombia. Chiwanté is known for his abilities to interact with the spirit world and guide his people through spiritual healing and knowledge transmission.
Contribution
Chiwanté is one of the master shamans of the Tukano people, where shamanism plays a crucial role in social organization, healing, and spiritual guidance. His knowledge of plant-based medicine, particularly hallucinogenic plants, and his role as a healer have been vital in maintaining the Tukano’s cultural heritage.
Legacy
His impact extends beyond his community as he became a symbol of resistance to modern encroachments on Amazonian culture, especially in relation to protecting Indigenous knowledge of healing plants and spiritual practices.
Juan Flores Salazar – Peru (Shipibo-Conibo People)
Historical Role Of Juan Flores Salazar
Juan Flores is a respected Shipibo-Conibo shaman from the Peruvian Amazon, known for his expertise in working with ayahuasca and other Amazonian plants. He runs a spiritual retreat and healing center where he leads ayahuasca ceremonies.
Contribution Of The Amazonian Shaman
He has worked extensively to promote the healing powers of Amazonian plants, using them to treat both physical and psychological illnesses. His work has attracted international attention, and his knowledge has helped preserve the traditional healing methods of the Shipibo-Conibo people.
Legacy Of Juan Flores Salazar
Juan Flores remains a vital figure in the transmission of traditional shamanic knowledge to new generations and international seekers, ensuring that Amazonian spiritual practices continue to thrive.
Martín Prechtel – Guatemala (Tz’utujil Maya)
Historical Role Of Martín Prechtel
A Maya shaman, teacher, and writer from Guatemala, Martín Prechtel was initiated into the Tz’utujil spiritual tradition. He became a village shaman and led rituals that connected the community to their Maya cosmology.
Contribution Of Martín Prechtel
He has shared his knowledge of Maya shamanism, rituals, and spiritual teachings with the world through his writings and lectures. His work emphasizes the importance of connecting with the natural world and preserving the oral traditions of the Maya people.
Legacy Of Martín Prechtel
Prechtel’s contribution to the global understanding of Maya shamanism has been significant, especially through his books that articulate the deeper meanings of Indigenous spirituality and its relevance to modern life.
Chimalpopoca (Aztec High Priest) – Mexico (Aztec Empire)
Historical Role Of Chimalpopoca
Chimalpopoca or Chīmalpopōcatzin (1397–1427), an Aztec ruler (the third Emperor of Tenochtitlan between 1417 and 1427), was also regarded as a spiritual leader, and his role as a high priest had shamanic elements, especially in his responsibility for conducting rituals and ensuring communication with the gods.
Contribution Of Chimalpopoca
He served as an intermediary between the gods and the people, and his leadership was marked by significant spiritual and ritual innovation in the Aztec Empire. Though more of a political figure, his spiritual influence was crucial in maintaining the Aztec religious cosmology.
Legacy Of Chimalpopoca
As a ruler and high priest, Chimalpopoca left an enduring mark on Aztec spirituality, which influenced the rituals and cosmology of the empire.
Vepsian Shamans (Finno-Ugric Peoples, Russia)
Historical Role Of Vepsian Shamans
Among the Vepsians, an indigenous Finno-Ugric people of northern Russia, shamans were highly respected figures who mediated between humans and nature spirits. These shamans were deeply connected to the natural world and practiced healing using rituals, songs, and sacred objects.
Prominent Vepsian Shamans Figures
One of the most well-known Vepsian shamans was Koira, a powerful figure in local folklore who was believed to control the forces of nature, including the weather and animal behavior, to protect his people.
Ngaju Dayak Shamans (Indonesia, Borneo)
Cultural Role Of Ngaju Dayak Shamans
Among the Ngaju Dayak people of Borneo, shamans, known as Balian, were crucial to maintaining the balance between the human and spiritual worlds. The Balian were believed to have the power to communicate with the spirits of the dead, as well as nature spirits, to ensure the well-being of the community.
Prominent Ngaju Dayak Shamans Figures
Many Balian achieved legendary status for their ability to enter the Upper World or Underworld during trance states and bring back knowledge to heal the sick or guide the souls of the dead. Bungai, a famous Dayak Balian, was said to have journeyed to the spirit world and brought back powerful knowledge that transformed his tribe.
Olkhon Shamans (Siberia, Lake Baikal)
Historical Importance Of Olkhon Shamans
The island of Olkhon in Lake Baikal, Siberia, is a major center for Buryat shamanism, where shamans were believed to have incredible power over spirits. The Buryat shamans held significant influence, performing rituals to control the weather, ensure good harvests, and heal the sick.
Modern-Day Olkhon Shamans
In contemporary times, Sergei Zhambalov and Vadim Sanzhiev are renowned Olkhon shamans who have preserved and revitalized Buryat shamanic practices. They conduct public rituals on Olkhon Island, drawing people from around the world to witness their powerful ceremonies.
Tungus Shamans (Siberia)
Role in the Spiritual Life Of Tungus Shamans
Among the Tungus people of Siberia, shamans were central to spiritual and everyday life. They used drumming, singing, and trance states to communicate with the spirit world, heal the sick, and lead the community through important rituals.
Prominent Tungus Shamans Figures
One famous shaman, Chayka, was believed to have had the power to travel between the worlds of the living and the dead, communicating with ancestors and healing those afflicted by spiritual ailments.
Wovoka (Paiute Prophet, North America)
Historical Figure: Wovoka also called Quoitze Ow and Jack Wilson (1856–1932) was a Northern Paiute religious leader who founded the Ghost Dance movement in the late 19th century. He is considered a shamanic figure due to his prophetic visions and his ability to communicate with spirits.
Ghost Dance Legacy Of Wovoka
Wovoka’s teachings and the Ghost Dance movement spread across many Native American tribes, promising the resurrection of the dead and the restoration of Native lands. The movement played a significant role in the events leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.
Grigori Rasputin (Russia)
Historical Figure Of Rasputin
Grigori Rasputin (1869–1916) was a Russian mystic and healer who became a close confidant of the Romanov family, particularly Tsarina Alexandra, due to his reputed healing abilities, especially over her hemophiliac son.
Shamanic Influence Of Rasputin
Although not a traditional shaman, Rasputin exhibited qualities often associated with shamans, such as spiritual healing, hypnotic powers, and his belief in mystical visions. His influence on the Russian royal family, combined with his ability to induce trance-like states, made him one of the most controversial mystic figures in modern history.
Pakal the Great (Maya Civilization)
Historical Figure Of Pakal the Great
K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, also known as Pakal the Great, was a Mayan king who ruled Palenque from 615 to 683 CE. While Pakal is primarily known for his political and architectural achievements, some scholars suggest that he also held a significant shamanic role.
Shamanic Iconography Of Pakal the Great
His elaborate tomb and sarcophagus are adorned with imagery suggesting Pakal’s journey into the underworld, portraying him as a shaman-king who could traverse the realms of the dead and the living. The famous sarcophagus lid depicts Pakal seemingly transformed or engaged in a visionary experience, linking him to shamanic practices.
Ogotemmêli (Dogon People, Mali)
Historical Figure Of Ogotemmêli
Ogotemmêli was a blind Dogon elder and spiritual leader whose teachings were recorded by the French anthropologist Marcel Griaule in the 1930s. His intricate knowledge of Dogon cosmology, spirituality, and mythology has been considered one of the most comprehensive accounts of an African cosmological tradition.
Shamanic Knowledge
Ogotemmêli narrated the cosmogony, cosmology, and symbols of the Dogon people, and explained complex spiritual concepts like the creation of the universe, the importance of ancestors, and the symbolic role of animals and celestial bodies in Dogon spirituality. His ability to interpret these sacred traditions likens him to a shamanic figure who holds the key to his people’s spiritual practices.
Anaruk (Greenland Inuit)
Mythical Shaman Anaruk
Anaruk is a legendary Inuit shaman from Greenland whose stories depict him as having extraordinary powers to communicate with spirits and navigate the harsh Arctic environment. Shamans among the Inuit are believed to have the ability to interact with Sila, the breath of life or spirit, which is present in all things.
Shamanic Powers Of Anaruk
Anaruk’s legendary abilities included controlling the weather, healing through spiritual means, and guiding his people through dangerous times. His tale is emblematic of the deep connection Inuit shamans have with the forces of nature and the spirit world.
Zarathustra (Zoroaster, Persia)
Historical and Mythological Figure Of Zarathustra
Zarathustra, also known as Zoroaster, was the founder of Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions, originating in ancient Persia. While primarily a prophet, some interpretations of his life and teachings view him as having shamanic qualities.
Shamanic Traits Of Zarathustra
Zarathustra was believed to have had visions of the supreme god Ahura Mazda and to have battled spiritual forces of evil, which aligns with shamanic traditions of spiritual warfare and divine communication. His meditative practices and visionary experiences resemble the altered states of consciousness experienced by shamans.
Nanshe (Mesopotamian Mythology)
Mythological Figure Nanshe
Nanshe was a Sumerian goddess associated with prophecy, divination, and justice, often regarded as a shamanic figure in ancient Mesopotamian culture. She was believed to have the ability to interpret dreams, provide guidance to rulers, and mediate between the spiritual and human realms.
Shamanic Role Of Nanshe
Nanshe was revered for her ability to communicate with the gods and the dead. As a diviner, she was consulted for advice on important decisions, making her a central figure in the shamanic traditions of the early Mesopotamian peoples.
Chiwara (Bambara People, Mali)
Mythological Shaman Chiwara
Chiwara is a mythical figure in the Bambara tradition of Mali, often depicted as a half-human, half-antelope being. Chiwara is considered a shamanic figure who taught the Bambara people how to cultivate the land and maintain harmony with nature.
Shamanic Representation Of Chiwara
The Chiwara mask is used in ceremonial dances, symbolizing the connection between the human and natural worlds. This figure is seen as a spiritual guide and healer who taught people the sacred practices necessary for survival, blending shamanic knowledge with practical wisdom.
Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov (Russia, Buryat Buddhism)
Historical Figure
Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov (1852–1927) was a Buryat Buddhist lama who is revered as both a spiritual leader and a figure with shamanic-like qualities due to his connection with the spirit world. Before his death, he asked to be buried in a lotus position and requested that his body be exhumed years later.
Mummified Mystery
When his body was exhumed in 2002, it was found to be in an extraordinary state of preservation, defying natural decomposition. This has led many to regard Itigilov as possessing mystical or shamanic powers. His preserved body is now kept as a sacred relic in Buryatia, Russia.
Apollonius of Tyana (Roman Empire)
Historical Figure
Apollonius of Tyana (c. 15–100 CE) was a Greek philosopher and mystic whose life was filled with accounts of miraculous healings, prophetic visions, and spiritual powers. He traveled throughout the Roman Empire, performing rituals and allegedly interacting with the divine.
Shamanic Legacy Of Apollonius of Tyana
Although primarily a philosopher, Apollonius was regarded by many as having shamanic abilities. He was said to have healed the sick, raised the dead, and communicated with gods and spirits. His life and teachings have parallels to the shamanic traditions in terms of altered consciousness, healing, and prophecy.
Taita Querubín Queta Alvarado (Colombia, Inga People)
Living Shaman
Taita Querubín Queta Alvarado, one of the most revered ayahuasqueros (ayahuasca shamans) from the Inga people of Colombia, has been practicing shamanism for more than 70 years. He is widely respected for his deep spiritual knowledge, healing ceremonies, and use of ayahuasca as a sacred medicine.
Shamanic Legacy
Taita Querubín is known for his wisdom, which has attracted people from around the world seeking spiritual healing. His rituals emphasize harmony with nature, healing trauma, and connecting to the divine.
Gletkin (Mongolia, Modern Shaman)
Living Shaman
Gletkin is a well-known modern shaman in Mongolia who practices traditional Tengerism, the Mongolian shamanistic religion. He is part of the contemporary revival of Mongolian shamanism, which saw a resurgence after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Shamanic Practices Of Gletkin
Gletkin conducts healing rituals, spirit journeys, and public ceremonies that connect the Mongolian people with their ancestors and the natural world. He is regarded as one of the leading figures in the revitalization of shamanism in Mongolia.
Mircea Eliade’s Shamanism Model (Researcher, General)
Research and Impact of Mircea Eliade
While not a practicing shaman, the Romanian scholar Mircea Eliade had a profound impact on how we understand shamanism. His seminal work, “Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy” (1951), analyzed shamanism across cultures and positioned shamans as “technicians of ecstasy.”
Global Influence of Mircea Eliade
Eliade’s model of shamanism influenced subsequent anthropological and spiritual interpretations of the shamanic experience, focusing on the shaman’s ability to enter altered states of consciousness to heal and connect with the spirit world.
